Grace Institute: General Epistles & Revelation: Overview: Literary Context

Overview Survey of the New Testament: General Epistles & Revelation Winter 2007

[Previous: Literary Context]

Historical Context: The Roman Empire

Following the death of Jesus Christ in approximately AD 30, his followers numbered about 70 people. These first Christians were all Jews located in the remote province of Judea. Yet within 35 years this tiny offshoot sect of Judaism would have the attention of the Roman Emperor Nero and be the subject of great controversy within the capital city of Rome. How did such a small movement grow and become so important in less than a generation?

The Rise of Rome

When the New Testament was written, the Roman Empire was the largest, strongest, and most stable empire the world had ever seen. The small city-state of Rome was founded in 753 BC and was ruled by kings during its early life. The city-state became a republic when the last king was deposed in the sixth century BC. The city's status as a republic was a source of pride for the Romans, and they retained much of the republican institutions long into its imperial period.

The city of Rome had conquered most of their neighboring city-states, and had control of the entire Italian peninsula in the third century BC. With the defeat of Carthage in the Punic wars of the third century and the defeat of the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the second century, Rome had control of most of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. In the First Century BC, Rome continued its conquest of the Mediterranean Sea, conquering Judea, Egypt, and modern day France and Britain.

While the empire continued to expand, internal political strife led to a series of Civil Wars between the great generals of the empire. Julius Caesar, the conqueror of Gaul was victorious in the first of these wars, but was assassinated. Octavian, Caesar's nephew, was victorious in the second Civil War, and had himself renamed himself Augustus Caesar and was declared Emperor by the republican Roman Senate. Thus began the transition from the Roman republic to the Roman Empire.

Pax Romana

With the exception of skirmishes around the far borders of the empire (such as the Jewish war of AD 70), by the first century AD, the Roman Empire was a stable and peaceful society. The Romans had created an empire stretching from Spain in the west, Palestine in the east, Britain to the north, and Egypt to the south. The entire shoreline of the Mediterranean Sea was under Roman control. Politically, the emperors brought freedom from civil war. Economically, the stability of the empire brought great prosperity. Technically, the empire brought about unprecedented engineering marvels, including a highly developed network of roads providing relatively easy travel. Socially, the prosperity and stability produced new philosophical and religious thoughts and ideas. As a result, this was a time known as the Pax Romana¸ the peace of Rome.

This peace provides the apostles with the ability to travel extensively without need of a passport and with the relative ease provided by the empire's transportation network.

The Judio-Claudian Emperors

Tiberius, Caligula and Claudius

Following the death of Augustus Caesar, his stepson, Tiberius, became emperor. During Tiberius' reign, the Roman General Germanicus conquered much of Germany. When Germanicus died unexpectedly, most people assumed Tiberius murdered him out of fear for the growing popularity of the General. The latter part of Tiberius' reign was characterized by paranoia as Tiberius routinely executed anyone who he thought to be a threat to him.

When Tiberius died, all the logical successors had been already murdered by him. He was succeeded then by Germanicus' son, Caligula. His real name was actually Gaius, but the nickname Caligula (which means “little boots) had been given to him by his father's troops in Germany when he was a little boy. Caligula began his rule well, but apparently became mentally unstable during his reign. Caligula at one point appointed his horse as a senator, as involved in numerous incestuous relationships with his sisters, and became more paranoid than his predecessor, murdering numerous political rivals. Eventually, Caligula was assassinated by his own Praetorian guard.

Caligula's uncle, Claudius, was the only remaining member of the Judio-Claudian family remaining, and he became emperor in AD 41 with the support of the Praetorians. Claudius had a disability which many modern scholars believe was cerebral palsy. This disability probably saved his life as Tiberius and Caligula didn't see him as a threat to the throne and therefore didn't murder him prior to his ascension to the throne. Claudius did not exhibit the paranoia of his predecessors and was an able administrator. Under his rule, the empire expanded into Britain and he rebuilt the port of Ostia, ensuring that grain and other supplies could be provided to Rome even during the winter.

However, Claudius was a bit naïve when it came to court intrigues. His own wife probably poisoned him so that her son from a previous marriage, Nero, could inherit the throne.

Nero

Nero was only 24 when he became emperor. For the first part of his reign he left governing to his mother and his tutor, Seneca. As he grew older he also grew in his desire for power and had both his mother and Seneca executed for treason. Nero was famous for throwing wild parties and orgies in the palace, and he spent extended periods in his vacation homes rather than in Rome. At the same time the empire experienced a series of uprisings, which plagued Nero during much of his reign. His failure to put down these rebellions and his extravagant licentiousness resulted in the loss of faith by the Praetorian Guard and an order of execution by the senate. Nero committed suicide before the guard could arrest him and carry out the order.

Nero is probably most famous for something that probably never actually happened. In AD 64, the city of Rome experienced a great fire which raged for five days, destroying two-thirds of the city, including the great temples to Jupiter and Vesta, and Nero's own palace. The ancient Roman historian Suetonius claimed that Nero himself had started the fire as part of a secret urban renewal plan, and that while Rome burned, Nero played the lyre and sang the “Sack of Illium,” in costume. The historian Tacitus refuted this rumor stating that Nero had been at his vacation home at the time of the fire and had returned as soon as possible to lead the relief efforts.

However, that Nero had started the blaze grew and threatened to take down Nero. So, according to Tacitus, Nero had to look for a scapegoat, choosing a misunderstood and small religious sect known as the Christians:

…to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular (Tacitus AD 109) .

First Persecution of the Christians

Religio Licitia

The Roman Empire was a melting pot of religions and cultic practices. While the Empire only actively supported the pantheon of traditional Roman religion and emperor worship, as new nations were conquered, the traditional religions of these nations were often adopted and practiced by people even in the capital city. Some of these religions were religio licitia (licensed religion). Most, however, were religio illicitia (unlicensed religion).

In 37 BC, Herod, an Edomite who practiced Judaism, allied himself with Rome against the Parthian empire to the east of Judea. As a reward for Herod's alliance, Rome made Herod the King of the Jews and granted Judaism the status of religio licitia (White n.d.) . Jews would not be required to participate in emperor worship, and paid a tax to support the Jewish temple rather than the temple to Jupiter in Rome.

In the early history of the church, Christianity was considered to be a sect of Judaism, and was therefore legal in the eyes of the empire. It was for this reason that the persecution under Claudius was relatively mild compared to future persecution of both the Jews and Christians.

However, as more and more Gentiles became Christians, the empire began to perceive Christianity as a religion separate from Judaism. Nero's persecution demonstrated that the Roman government no longer considered Christianity to be a sect of Judaism and no longer would receive protection as a legal religion (Snyder 2002) .

Persecution by Nero

Nero's accusation against the Christians led to the first systematic persecution by the Roman government of the church. Tacitus continues by telling of the nature of the persecution.

Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired (Tacitus AD 109) .

The apostle Peter wrote his first epistle from the city of Rome [1] about this time. It is no surprise then that Peter tells his readers not to be surprised when they face “the fiery ordeal” among them (1 Peter 4:12). This was not metaphorical fiery trial. This was literal. Peter goes on to tell them to rejoice in their persecution because that means they are sharing in the suffering of Christ (1 Peter 4:13), and such persecution is a blessing for it shows that they have the spirit of God within them (1 Peter 4:14).

Certainly, if you are persecuted because of a crime, that is to your shame (1 Peter 4:15). But suffering because of being a Christian has not shame with it (1 Peter 4:16), and persecuted believers can be assured that in their death, God will bring about their salvation (1 Peter 4:17).

What is the wonder, however, is that in the midst of the immorality and persecution of Nero, Peter still continues to tell Christians to submit to the rulers (1 Peter 2:13) and honor them (1 Peter 2:16), for they have been instituted by God as a means to curb evil and promote good (1 Peter 2:14).

In today's age of divisive politics and immorality amongst our leaders, many believers have found it difficult to submit and show respect to our governmental leaders. Yet here, Peter tells Christians that they are to submit and honor emperors who were involved in the most heinous of sexual sins, who were blood thirsty and paranoid tyrants, and who falsely blamed the church so to get himself out of political problems.

If this is the context of 1 Peter, then what would Peter have to say about the great disrespect the church has shown to “those godless liberals?” Even in the worst of moments, we have never had governmental leaders in this country who were so evil. Yet we struggle to show respect.

Flavian Emperors

Vespasian

After Nero's forced suicide, the empire fell into a period of civil war. Competing generals rose in close succession in what historians would call “the year of the four emperors” (AD 68-69). Emerging out of this year of chaos was Vespasian. During the reign of Nero, Vespasian made a name for himself as a general in the Roman army. Under his command, Vespasian had put down a revolt amongst the Jews in the province of Judea. He then became the governor of Judea for a short time.

The Destruction of Jerusalem

After becoming emperor, Vespasian left the rule of Judea to his son, Titus. When the Jews rebelled again in AD 70, Titus laid siege to Jerusalem and destroyed the city and the temple.

This is a highly significant event, both to the church and to Judaism. Without the temple, Judaism is no longer to be centered on temple sacrifices for the atonement of sin and instead becomes centered on the obedience to the Law. Furthermore, the destruction of Jerusalem, the center of the church moves from Judea to other Gentile cities throughout the empire. The destruction of Jerusalem is the final act which divorces the church from its Jewish roots in the eyes of the empire.

Titus

Upon the death of Vespasian, Titus became the emperor (AD 79). While Titus was responsible for the destruction of the Jews, he retained close ties with the Jewish people. While in Jerusalem he fell in love and married Berenice, the daughter of Harod Aggirppa, the Jewish puppet king. Likewise, he was a patron of Josephus, a Jewish historian whose history of the Jews and of the Jewish war with Rome is one of the most important works of history from this era.

Titus was considered by his contemporaries to be a good emperor who ruled fairly and competently. He continued public work projects started by his father, including the construction of the coliseum in Rome. Titus' triumph in Judea was commemorated in Rome by the arch of Titus, which still stands today in the city of Rome.

Domitian

Titus died suddenly from fever after just two years of ruling. His brother, Domitian became emperor in his place. Under Domitian, the empire extended its control of Germany and the army conquered parts of Scotland. While popular with the army, Domitian came to be hated by the Senate and the Roman aristocracy because of his arrogance.

According to the Roman historian, Suetonius, Domitian would sign his official letters with the title dominus et dues, which is translated lord and god (Suetonius 1913) . While many Roman emperors were deified by the Senate following their death, it seemed to the senate and aristocracy that Domitian was deifying himself while still alive, requiring that people consider him as a god. Soon, even in a casual conversation, this was the title which people would use to refer to the emperor.

Persecution under Domitian

Domitian required that people worship him as their Lord God. However, Christians believe that Jesus is their only Lord and God and thus refused to participate in emperor worship. This was perceived as disloyalty to the empire, resulting in the second period of systematic persecution of the church by the Roman government (Reasoner 1998) . There is very little historical discussion of the nature of this persecution.

However, it was during this time that the apostle John saw the vision which he wrote as the book of Revelation. It is not coincidence that John describes a coming “beast” who kill those who refuse to worship the beast (Revelation 13:15). Jesus, in his message to the seven churches of Asia, calls believers by the title “the overcomers,” for they were those facing great trials and suffering for their faith. But the message of Revelation is that for those who hold fast to the faith, they shall overcome.

Domitian is not their Lord and God. Jesus is the true Lord and God. Jesus will return someday and will defeat him who makes claims as Lord and God. Jesus will return someday and defeat him who persecutes saints who refuse to worship the false Christ. Jesus will return and the overcomers will reign with him.

Today we have reduced the book of Revelation to debates about timelines and fictional books and movies hypothesizing about the geopolitical predictions found in biblical prophecy. However, all this misses the point of Revelation. It is not written to satisfy our curiosity as to the historical events leading up to the return of Christ. Instead, it is to serve as an encouragement to believers of all time that their faith is not in vain. The message of Revelation to those facing suffering, persecution, and death at the hands of an evil ruler and an evil empire is simple: overcome, for Jesus wins and Caesar loses (Metzger Summer 2003) .

Footnote

1. 1 Peter 5:13 indicates that Peter wrote this epistle from “Babylon,” which is a euphemism used by the early church for the city of Rome.

[Next: Social & Religious Context]